Evidence

Some of the more convincing findings supporting Linked Learning began emerging in the 1980s from work in learning theory and cognitive science. Research shows that many people learn better and faster, and retain information longer, when they are taught concepts in context (Sticht et al. 1987).

One study focused on young soldiers who lacked basic literacy skills when they entered the military. One group was taught to read in the context of their daily tasks, while others participated in a traditional literacy program. The study found that those who were taught to read in the context of tasks not only increased their competency in those tasks but also improved their general reading skills—all in a relatively short time period. In fact, the gains in general reading skills were equal to or greater than those produced by the conventional literacy program, while gains in job–related reading exceeded the traditional program by a factor of four or five.

Called “functional–context education,” these techniques have been successfully used to teach literacy and other skills in nonmilitary adult education programs. In 2002, the U.S. Department of Education’s What Works Clearinghouse, which screens and identifies high–quality research, recognized functional context education as an effective approach (Fletcher 2006).

Another prominent study (PDF, 2.26 MB) offered strong evidence that integrated academic and technical curriculum leads to higher test scores if implemented well. In this research, career and technical education (CTE) teachers were paired with mathematics teachers who identified the mathematical content embedded in the CTE teachers’ subjects and developed lesson plans to teach the math within the occupational context. The 57 CTE teachers who helped develop the math–enhanced lessons were randomly assigned to classrooms and delivered the curriculum for about 10 percent of class time over the course of one year; 74 CTE teachers not participating in such development taught other classrooms with traditional instruction.

The almost 3,000 enrolled students were given math pre–tests and were tested again a year later. Those taught the integrated curriculum significantly outscored the control group on two tests of math ability.

Other research on the effectiveness of career academies and other forms of career and technical education also provides strong evidence of the benefits of pathways. While more research should be done, the findings suggest that teaching integrated curricula can improve student outcomes in specific, measurable areas.

An integrated curriculum combined with work–based learning and career guidance can lead to higher wages after high school. Employing rigorous experimental design and random assignment, an MDRC study (PDF, 3.12 MB) examined the outcomes of 1,700 students enrolled in career academies that offered the Linked Learning approach to predominantly minority students. The study showed that four years after graduation from high school, career academy graduates were earning more than their traditionally educated counterparts. While this was true for both men and women, the result was statistically significant for academy males, who earned 18 percent ($10,000) more over the four–year period after high school.

The study could not isolate the precise causes of these higher earnings. The wage gains could reflect mastery of general industry knowledge and skill, an increased ability to apply academic knowledge and skill, greater proficiency in problem solving, development of networking and teamwork skills, or other learning not measured by conventional standardized achievement tests. Nevertheless, the earning gains enjoyed by academy students suggest that additional learning was occurring in academy programs, which was sufficiently valued by employers to warrant higher wages.

This study found further that academy students did neither better nor worse than comparable high school students on academic achievement as measured by standardized tests. Nor was the academy students’ postsecondary attainment compromised. Since these career academies were not yet teaching core academics any differently from the way courses were taught in traditional high school classes, these results are not surprising. It remains to be seen whether more contextualized or problem–based approaches to academic instruction can produce higher academic gains and better rates of postsecondary persistence and attainment.

Other research on career academies is also promising—indicating increases in graduation rates, exit exam passing rates, and the number of students eligible for state colleges. In a study conducted collaboratively by ConnectEd: The California Center for College and Career, and the Career Academy Support Network at the University of California at Berkeley, researchers found that students in California’s partnership academies were much more likely to complete the 15 academic courses (the a–g requirements) needed to be eligible for admission to California’s public colleges and universities. The study found that 50 percent of graduating seniors in partnership academies had completed the a–g requirements, compared to only 39 percent of graduates statewide. A Profile of California Partnership Academies 2004-05 (PDF, 1.50 MB) found that 50 percent of graduating seniors in partnership academies had completed the a–g requirements, compared to only 39 percent of graduates statewide.

Similarly, academy students were much more likely to pass the California High School Exit Exam (CAHSEE). For example, 71 percent of African American students in academies passed the math portion of the CAHSEE in 2005, compared with 55 percent of all African American high school students in the state.

Graduation rates were also better, with 96 percent of academy seniors graduating compared to only 87 percent of high school seniors statewide. (Data were unavailable for the study to calculate graduation rates from entry in ninth grade to graduation.) While it is possible that selection effects— that students enrolled in the academies were more motivated or better prepared to begin with— account for some of the outcome, it seems unlikely that this could explain such a large difference.

Even without an integrated curriculum, students simply taking both academic and technical courses may have lower dropout rates and better achievement gains than comparison groups of students. A study (PDF, 9.85 KB) examining data on more than 4,000 students found that those in California’s ROCPs improved their grade point averages more than comparison students enrolled in non–CTE programs. ROCP students were as likely to enroll in postsecondary education and to earn higher wages. Significantly, these students were lower achieving and of lower socioeconomic status than the comparison group.

In addition, in data analyses from the National Education Longitudinal Study, which has monitored student achievement data and other factors for over a decade, researchers found that the risk of dropping out was four times higher when students took no CTE courses than when they completed three such courses for every four academic courses. Participation in CTE courses had an even more positive effect for the lowest achieving students (Mitchell 2006, citing Neumark 2004).

Finally, postsecondary participation rates (PDF, 227 KB) may be higher for those enrolled in Linked Learning pathways. Three other studies of career academies followed students beyond high school. Two found higher rates of postsecondary participation among academy students compared with their peers, while one found no difference. Research (PDF, 5.18 KB) on school–to–work programs in the 1990s also frequently found high rates of postsecondary participation among graduates.

Although these particular studies of career academies did control for various student background differences, their methods do not rule out the possibility that there was something about the students in the academies, rather than the programs themselves that explains these encouraging results.

Research to date suggests that the approach of integrating challenging academic and technical curricula in the context of real–world application can produce many benefits for students, especially those who traditionally have not done well in conventional high school programs. Like most research in education, the findings are not always conclusive, and the field needs additional exploration—especially more studies employing experimental design that can eliminate the potential effects of students “self–selecting” to participate in career academies and other types of Linked Learning pathways.

Nevertheless, there is substantial evidence of positive outcomes for students. Perhaps just as compelling, none of the studies indicates lower performance in key areas by students in pathways compared to students in other high school programs. “Do no harm” is of paramount importance in any school improvement proposal. Pathways initiatives implemented so far respect this caution, while also producing tangible benefits for many students.